Comparability — Argentina [top]

Each sample distinguishes between persons attending at the time of the census and those who ever attended school in the past. Only officially recognized institutions with formal levels of instruction were to be counted.

The universe for 1970 and 1980 is persons aged 5 and older; in 1991, 2001, and 2010 it is persons age 3 and older.

Comparability — Armenia [top]

Both the 2001 and 2011 censuses identify persons studying at the time of the census in virtually any type of school or correspondence program. In 2001 the question was asked of persons age 7 and older; in 2011 the question was asked of persons age 6 and older.

Comparability — Austria [top]

The 2011 source variable includes a category for "unclassified children aged 7 to 14". These cases are coded as unknown in SCHOOL.

Comparability — Bangladesh [top]

The 2011 census instructed that only persons in regular courses were to be counted, not persons in brief specialized or correspondence courses. The earlier censuses did not define attendance.

The age universe for the question changes significantly between censuses. The universe for 1991 is persons between 5 and 35 years; in 2001 persons between 5 and 29 years; and 2011 is all persons.

Comparability — Belarus [top]

The census question asks about school attendance at the time of the census, including pre-school, primary, vocational, secondary, and higher education, in full-time or part-time educational institutions.

Comparability — Benin [top]

The variable is broadly comparable over time. The universe changes slightly across samples.

Comparability — Bolivia [top]

The age universe for the question changes between censuses. All censuses asked whether the person was currently attending school. The 1992 sample distinguishes between persons who were attending and those who never attended school. The 2001 and 2012 samples asked more details about type of school attended, which are preserved in the corresponding unharmonized source variables.

Comparability — Botswana [top]

The census question referred only to formal education, including officially registered private schools. Responses distinguished between persons who never attended school and those who attended only in the past.

The universe changed across samples: school attendance is reported by present residents aged 5 years or more in 1981, persons aged 5 years or more in 1991, and persons aged 2 years or more in 2001-2011.

Comparability — Brazil [top]

In all years, school attendance includes all persons in regular schools having a progressive yearly curriculum. All persons registered for school were to be counted, even if they were temporarily absent from school at the time of the census. Persons in adult literacy courses, high school preparatory courses, or primary classes in households were also considered attending in all years.

In 1960 and 1970, persons in kindergarten were explicitly not considered attending school. Beginning in 1980, pre-school counted as attendance.

In 2000, the question was addressed to all persons for the first time, rather than being restricted to persons age five and older. Children in day-care (creche) in 2000 and 2010 were to be considered attending school, as were persons involved in distance education in 2010. The 2000 and 2010 censuses distinguished between persons who never attended school versus those who attended only in the past.

Comparability — Burkina Faso [top]

The census does not specify what types of education qualify as school attendance.

Comparability — Cambodia [top]

The question in all samples refers specifically to full-time education in a formal institution. Attendance is determined at the time of enumeration.

Comparability — Cameroon [top]

The 1976 census specifically included correspondence courses and excluded job training. The 2005 census did not include such definitions. The universe for 1976 is persons age 4 years and older; in 2005 is persons age 3 years and older.

Comparability — Canada [top]

The question was asked of all people in 1971 and only of persons age 15 and older in later censuses. For samples prior to 2011, the unharmonized source variables distinguish between part-time and full-time attendance.

The 1971-2011 samples ask about attendance in the previous nine months -- the last school year.

Comparability — Chile [top]

In all years, the census instructions indicated only regular schooling was to be considered. The 1982 sample defined this to include kindergarten, but not nursery school, preschool, correspondence courses, or purely work training courses while the 2017 sample includes pre-school and special education.

1960 is a sample of individuals, not households. Only persons who were heads of households get a response for most household variables.

In 1982 and 2017, the question distinguishes between current and past attendance.

Comparability — China [top]

The census question asks about school attendance at the time of the census (to primary/elementary or a higher level).

Comparability — Colombia [top]

In 1973 and 1993 the question applied to persons five years and older. 1985 had no age universe, but a 5-year age limit has been imposed to make the sample comparable to the previous Colombian datasets (i.e., persons under age 5 are coded "not in universe"). In 2005 persons age 3 years and older were asked the question. In each year, the question specifically refers to a person's enrollment status at the time of the census.

Comparability — Costa Rica [top]

The 1963 to 2000 censuses stipulated that only regular schooling was to be considered. Training courses or an "open system" of education were not counted as school attendance. In 2011, the question was asked of all individuals. Children age five and younger attending day care centers, preschools and nursery schools are coded as "No" in SCHOOL. The 2011 source variable also includes a category for adult day centers. These cases are coded as "No" in SCHOOL. See the unharmonized source variable for more detail.

Comparability — Dominican Republic [top]

The 1960 and 1970 censuses only identify whether the person is currently attending or not, while the 1981, 2002, and 2010 censuses distinguish persons who never attended school from those who attended school in the past.

School attendance includes primary, secondary, and university, but treatment of other education options may differ across samples. School types explicitly include literacy centers in 1960 and correspondence courses in 1981. Additionally, the 1981 census asked about attendance in a vocational, technical, or commercial educational institution, which is considered schooling even though the question was directed to an older age universe (persons age 10 or more.) Preschool or pre-primary is included in school attendance in 1981, 2002, and 2010. In 2010, daycare and vocational/technical education options such as schools for secretaries, fashion, beauty, mechanics, radio and television, as well as other extra-curricular courses are excluded.

The universe for 1960, 1970, and 1981 is persons age 5 and older; in 2002 and 2010 it is persons age 3 and older.

Comparability — Ecuador [top]

Enrollment in a literacy center counts as school attendance in all samples; correspondence courses and job training classes do not count.

The age universe for the question changes from six and older for 1962-1990 to four and older in 2001 and to five and older in 2010.

Comparability — Egypt [top]

The question refers to current school enrollment in basic education.

Comparability — El Salvador [top]

The samples are fully comparable and reference attendance at a school in the regular school system, not professional or training courses.

Comparability — Ethiopia [top]

The samples are largely consistent over time. Respondents attending pre-school and informal or non-regular programs, including literacy training, are not considered to be attending school. These groups are identified separately in the unharmonized source variables.

Comparability — Fiji [top]

The 1976 census offered no definition of schooling. The 1986 census specified full-time primary or secondary establishments (and presumably included tertiary). The 1996 specified kindergarten was to be included. The 2007 and 2014 censuses specify formal educational institutions. Part-time schooling in 2007 and 2014 is coded as not attending, in order to maintain consistency with earlier censuses. The source variables identify these cases.

The 1996-2014 censuses distinguish between persons who never attended school versus those who attended only in the past.

Comparability — France [top]

The age universe differs markedly between the French samples. The schooling questions record the person's student status at the time of the census and refer to the current school year. The instructions of what should be considered as schooling for this purpose differ in the level of detail and might treat differently some forms of education across samples.

In 1982, information on school attendance was derived from separate questions for 2-14 year-olds and older persons.

Comparability — Germany [top]

The census question refers to current school enrollment in all samples. The universe for Germany 1970 census includes only persons age 5 and older, but it includes all persons in 1981-1987.

Comparability — Ghana [top]

The question asked whether persons were attending school full-time -- four or more hours per day -- at the time of the census. Adult literacy, strictly religious learning, and certain kinds of training were excluded. In 1984, the question was asked of persons age 5 and older and nursery schools were explicitly excluded from full-time education. In 2000 and 2010, the universe was expanded to include persons age 3 and older. In these samples, children attending nursery schools were considered to be attending school.

Comparability — Guatemala [top]

The 1964 data include instruction in the home. All later years specify attendance means instruction in a school or regular educational establishment. The data are otherwise comparable across samples. The 2002 sample distinguishes between persons attending public versus private institutions. See the source variable.

Comparability — Guinea [top]

The 1983 census asked about current school attendance involving regular studies.

In 1996, school attendance is derived from the economic activity status question. Children age 6 to 18 who attended school full-time were to be reported as "in school" regardless of whether they also performed some economic activity.

The universe for the 2014 sample is "persons age 3+", while it is "persons age 6+ for the 1983 and 1996 samples.

Comparability — Haiti [top]

The 1982 census specified that only education in the normal school system was to be considered, not special education outside the system or job training in a workplace. The 2003 census specifically included technical and professional training centers and literacy centers.

The age universe for the question changes from six and older for 1982 to five years and older in 2003.

Comparability — Honduras [top]

The variable is broadly comparable over time. The universe changes slightly across samples. The unknown category includes those persons who did not answer the question about school attendance, even when they reported any educational attainment.

Comparability — Hungary [top]

The data for 1970 to 1990 are derived from the question on economic activity; in 2001, it comes from the question on daily travel to school; in 2011, it is directly ascertained through a census question which asked the type of education that the person is currently attending (from nursery through university.) In all years, except for 2011, persons who were economically active in the week before the census would not be recorded as attending school.

Comparability — Indonesia [top]

The universe changes significantly from all persons in samples prior to and including 1980 to persons age 5+ from 1985 to 2010. The question refers to attendance in the formal school system at the primary level or above -- kindergarten is not counted.

The 1976 data contain cases when the respondent indicated not attending school but providing no specifics on previous attendance.

Comparability — Iran [top]

The census question considers anyone who is in school at the time of enumeration, including students in theological schools, in literacy schools, and those studying abroad. The enumeration instructions consider students those on leave and persons accepted in higher education who were registered at the institution.

In 2006, persons studying at community colleges or certificate programs (such as computers, foreign languages, painting, sewing, or others) are considered students. In 2011, individuals taking courses in technical and vocational training and those taking unofficial courses (such as computer science, language, painting, etc.) are not registered as attending school.

Comparability — Israel [top]

The 1983, 1995, and 2005 samples indicate whether a person was currently attending or had ever attended school. Kindergarten and courses lasting less than one year were to be excluded.

Comparability — Italy [top]

The 2001 census asked whether the respondent was enrolled in primary school, secondary school, university, or a vocational training/updating course.

Comparability — Jamaica [top]

The universe differs slightly between 1982-1991 and 2001.

The levels of education considered for school attendance are comparable across Jamaica censuses and they cover pre-primary, primary, secondary, tertiary, and special education. The question instructions assume that an individual is not attending if he/she is less than 3 years old for Jamaica 1982 census, less than 4 or more than 50 years old for Jamaica 1991, and less than 4 years old for Jamaica 2001. Also, persons on holidays from school are regarded as attending school unless they completed the last term and are not enrolled in other program.

Comparability — Kenya [top]

The universe changes significantly from all persons in the 1979 sample, to persons age 6+ in 1989, to persons age 5+ in 1999, to persons age 3+ in 2009 and 2019.

The 1979 census did not define the type of education that would qualify. Later censuses require that attendance is in reference to full-time education in formal educational institutions. The 1989 census explicitly included primary, secondary and tertiary. In 1999, pre-primary was to be included. The 2009 census expanded the definition of schooling to include attendance at virtually any educational establishment, formal or informal.

All censuses stated that attendance means "persons attending school this year."

Comparability — Kyrgyzstan [top]

The age universe for the question changes from six and older for 1999 to all persons in 2009. Attendance includes regular schools as well as persons taking courses for vocational or professional improvement.

Comparability — Laos [top]

Attendance means studying at a formal educational institution, even if temporarily absent from school at the time of the census. The 1995 and 2005 samples refer to full-time instruction.

Comparability — Lesotho [top]

The universe changes slightly across samples.

Comparability — Liberia [top]

The 1974 census only indicates whether the person is currently attending or not, while in 2008 persons who never attended school are separately identified from those who attended school in the past.

Comparability — Malawi [top]

The universe for Malawi 1987 and 1998 censuses is persons age 5 and older. In Malawi 2008 census, information about school attendance was collected from non-visitors age 3 and older. In Malawi 2018, the question is applied for persons age 3 and older.

In the Malawi 2008 census the question records whether a person was currently attending, while in the earlier samples it only indicates if the person attended in the month when data was collected. The Malawi 1987 and 1998 samples consider primary, secondary, distant education centers, and university, while they exclude teacher's training, technical colleges, short courses, and adult literacy schools. The Malawi 2008 and 2018 census explicitly indicates that pre-school should also be considered school attendance.

Comparability — Malaysia [top]

All censuses asked whether persons were attending school at the time of the census. Only formal education primary-to-tertiary was included. The 1971 census specifically excluded kindergarten.

Comparability — Mali [top]

The 1998 census only indicates whether the person is currently attending school, while in 2009 persons who never attended school are separately identified from those who attended school in the past.

The census question in 1998 refers to current attendance in a regular school, part or full time, during the day or night, while non-regular schools are also considered in 2009.

Comparability — Mauritius [top]

In 1990-2011, school attendance includes pre-primary, primary or secondary school, a university or a vocational or technical school. The 1990 and 2000 samples consider only persons attending school full-time, while the 2011 sample also identifies those following a course on a part-time basis (including a correspondence course).

Comparability — Mexico [top]

The universe gets progressively younger, from 6+ for 1970, to 5+ for 1990-2005, to 3+ for 2010-2020. The question refers to status at the time of the census.

The 1995-2020 censuses explicitly excluded persons taking adult literacy classes or trade/craft courses (sewing, electricity, etc.) from school attendance. The 2020 census question also indicates not to count as attendance persons getting prepared to take a single accreditation exam for basic, middle, or higher education.

Comparability — Mongolia [top]

Schooling includes night school and correspondence instruction. Foreign-language courses and occupational courses to receive a certificate were not included.

Comparability — Morocco [top]

The 2014 sample refers to enrollment in the preceding school year (2013-14). Persons who were enrolled but did not complete the school year were considered as "not attending" in SCHOOL.

Comparability — Myanmar [top]

In 2014, school attendance refers to any regular accredited educational institution, public or private, at any level of education, whether attendance was full-time or part-time.

Comparability — Nepal [top]

Attendance means going to a formal school, including students who are temporarily absent.

The universe differs significantly across samples. The 2001 census question applies only to persons between 6 and 25 years old who have not passed grade 10. The 2011 question was asked of persons age 5 or older.

Comparability — Nicaragua [top]

The universe changes slightly from persons age 6+ for the 1971 census to 5+ for 1995 and 2005. The samples are otherwise comparable, indicating current enrollment in the formal school system.

Comparability — Pakistan [top]

The census question in 1973 refers to attendance to an educational institution, either private or administered by the Government, for attaining regular education, including specialized (i.e. arts, commerce, and sciences) and Madrassas. The question distinguishes between those who left school and those who never attended. Formal job training counts as schooling, but apprenticeships are excluded as are studies not arranged as progressive levels.

Comparability — Palestine [top]

The universe for Palestine 1997 and 2007 censuses includes persons age 5 and older, but in 2007 it excludes those in Jerusalem annexed by Israel in 1967. In contrast, the universe for the 2017 sample includes "persons age 3+". The 1997-2017 census samples identify current enrollment.

Comparability — Panama [top]

The age universe for the question changes between censuses. The universe for 1960 is persons 7+ not in indigenous groups; in 1990 is persons 5+; and 1980, 2000 and 2010 is persons 4+.

The censuses asked about enrollment in school at the time of enumeration. All samples have a broad definition of schooling, including preschool, vocational schools outside the normal system of education, schools for the mentally deficient, and literacy education.

Comparability — Papua New Guinea [top]

The universe changes across samples. In 1980, it is not possible to distinguish between "never attended" and "attended in the past".

Comparability — Paraguay [top]

All samples indicate whether the person is currently attending an institution of regular schooling. The universe changes from persons age 7 and older in 1962-1982 to persons age 5 and older in 1992 and 2002.

Comparability — Philippines [top]

The census question in 1990, 2000, and 2010 asked whether the person attended school at anytime in the reference year.

Comparability — Poland [top]

The census question considers anyone who is in school at the time of enumeration. The 'no' category includes those persons who have never attended any school, as well as those who are attending vocational courses (such as driving, sewing, or computer classes.)

Comparability — Portugal [top]

All samples (1981-2011) indicate whether a person was currently attending or had ever attended school. In all years currently attending was to mean regular attendance, not simply enrollment.

Comparability — Puerto Rico [top]

The age universe is persons age 3 or older in all samples (1990-2020), except for 1980 when all persons were considered. The question refers to attendance to regular school or college, either public or private. The reference time period is any time during the last two months for the 1970-2000 samples while it refers to any time during the last three months for the 2005-2020 samples.

Comparability — Romania [top]

The universe changes across samples. In 1977 it is all persons, and in 1992, 2002, and 2011 it is persons age 6 and older.

Comparability — Russia [top]

The 2002 census includes students going part-time to an educational institution or learning by correspondence, if it is comprehensive or vocational training. There is no mention of part-time schooling in the 2010 census.

The universe changes significantly across samples. In 2002, the question applies only to persons aged 6 years or older, while in 2010 the question was asked only of persons aged from 6 to 50 years old.

Comparability — Rwanda [top]

Rwanda 2002 does not have a specific variable regarding current school attendance (only if the person ever attended school), but the question on "employment status" records people who were students as their primary activity in the previous month. Thus, a person who worked and went to school would not be recorded as attending school. Rwanda 2012 has a specific question about school attendance. The universe changes across samples.

Comparability — Saint Lucia [top]

Both censuses asked the question of all persons. The question refers to current school attendance, whether full or part time, including educational levels from nursery school to university.

Comparability — Senegal [top]

School attendance for the 1988 and 2002 samples is derived from nearly identical questions on employment status. The census questions asked for the person's main activity in the previous 12 months. Persons who worked continuously for at least three months as well as being a student should have been considered working and would not count as attending school. On the other hand, the 2013 sample asked the current school attendance.

The universe for the 2013 sample is "residents age 3+" while it is "persons age 6+" for the 1988 and 2002 samples.

Comparability — Sierra Leone [top]

The question refers to attendance at any educational establishment (including Arabic schools) where formal instruction is given on a full-time basis.

The universe differs across samples: from persons age 6+ in 2004 to persons age 3+ in private households in 2015.

Comparability — Slovakia [top]

The data for the 2001 and 2011 samples are derived from employment status, in which persons identify they are secondary or university students.

The universe for both 2001 and 2011 samples is persons age 15 and older.

Comparability — Slovenia [top]

Attendance includes vocational and professional retraining.

Comparability — South Africa [top]

Preschool and day care were not counted as enrollment. The 1996 census explicitly included correspondence courses, and 2001 included adult education centers. In 2007 and 2011, the question specified that part-time or full-time attendance, distance learning, and home schooling qualified as attendance. The 2016 sample also includes home school education, early childhood development centers (ECD), and distance learning, but only accounts for the courses of 6 months or longer.

The universe varies across samples.

Comparability — South Sudan [top]

The question refers to attendance at a formal educational institution on a full-time basis, excluding adult or short-term vocational training education.

Comparability — Spain [top]

The Spanish samples determine school attendance relative to the moment or the week of the census. In 2011, the question was only asked of persons age 15 and younger, which is a marked change from previous samples. Respondents attending day care are included in the "Yes" category in 2011.

Comparability — Sudan [top]

The question refers to attendance at a formal educational institution on a full-time basis, excluding adult or short-term vocational training education.

Comparability — Suriname [top]

In 2004, school attendance is derived from the economic activity status question; if a person is a student, they are recorded as attending school. The 2012 census asked about current school attendance to formal education in the previous school year (2011-12).

The universe is different across samples: persons age 12+ in 2004 and persons age 4+ in 2012.

Comparability — Switzerland [top]

The census question in 2000 refers to ongoing education, including mandatory school, middle school, preparatory trade or profession school, apprenticeship, high school, teacher training school, advance technical and professional training, trade or professional school, college, and university. The 2000 sample identifies the current level of education in the unharmonized source variable. The 2011 data refers to persons going to school or college.

Comparability — Tanzania [top]

The data are comparable between samples. In all censuses, the question distinguished among those attending school, those who completed school, those who never attended, and those who had left school.

In 1988 and 2002 the questions were asked of persons aged 5 years or older and in 2012 the census question was asked of persons aged 4 years or older.

Comparability — Thailand [top]

The age universe is persons between 5 and 30 years old in all samples, except for 1970 when persons between 5 and 29 years old were considered. The question refers to school attendance during the last three months, including the regular education system, vocational education, and university level.

In all censuses, studying short courses in a general education program in which no regular subjects are offered is not considered as school attendance; for example, hair dressing, dress making or tailoring, radio repairing, and similar activities.

Comparability — Togo [top]

The data indicate current attendance at an educational establishment.

Comparability — Trinidad and Tobago [top]

In 1970, the information is derived from the question on type of non-vocational school or university currently attended, while the 1980-2011censuses have questions that directly ask whether the person is currently attending or not school.

The enumeration instructions in 1990 and 2000 indicate that adult or continuing classes should be considered as attending school. The 2011 census explicitly includes distance learning.

The universe is all persons in all censuses except in 2011, which includes only persons in private households living in Trinidad and Tobago.

Comparability — Uganda [top]

All samples ask whether the person attended school within the current calendar year. In 1991, the question was asked of all persons, in 2002 only of persons age 5 and older, and in 2014 only of persons age 3 and older.

Comparability — Ukraine [top]

Persons who study at day or nighttime, doing correspondence courses, on-the-job training, or any course with a duration of 12 months or more are considered to be attending school. The definition includes general, vocational, higher, and other types of education. Persons age 6 years old in preschool (from a separate question) are also considered to be attending school.

Comparability — United Kingdom [top]

The census identifies people who were full-time students at the time of the census.

Comparability — United States [top]

The age universe for the question changes among the U.S. samples.

For 2005-2020, a person was considered as having attended school if she or he attended school at any time in the previous three months to the census.

For 1960-2000, a person who attended school at any time from February 1 to the census day (April) was counted as having attended school.

1960: any kindergarten or elementary school, and any schooling leading toward a high school diploma or college degree. Nursery school, business or trade school, and adult education classes were not to be counted.

1970: any educational nursery school (not simply custodial child care), kindergarten, elementary school, and any schooling leading toward a high school diploma or college degree.

1980-2005: any nursery school, kindergarten, elementary school, and any schooling leading toward a high school diploma or college degree. (Other types of schooling counted only if a regular elementary school, high school, or college would have accepted it for credit.)

2010-2020: home schooling is included among the types of school identified.

Comparability — Uruguay [top]

The universe differs across samples. The samples are otherwise comparable, indicating current enrollment in the formal school system. The 1963 sample excludes correspondence, technical (such as piano, cooking, sewing, and similar), and improvement courses. The 1996 data contains a significant unknown category. The 2011 data come from two separate questions regarding current attendance of persons age 3 or younger and past or current attendance of persons age 4 or older.

Comparability — Venezuela [top]

In 1971, affirmative responses required attending at least half of classes the month before census day.

The 1971 census limited affirmative responses to attendance at accredited institutions, including technical and industrial schools, but excluding commercial schools. Correspondence courses were not to be counted unless they related directly to elementary, secondary, or normal education.

The 1981 and 1990, the census language was simplified to require simply being a student in preschool, primary, intermediate, or superior school. A person need only be enrolled for school, not actually attending at census time. In 2001, the language of the question changed slightly again to ask if the person currently attended a formally accredited educational establishment

The age universe for the question changes from five and older in 1971-1981 to three and older in 1990-2001.

Comparability — Vietnam [top]

The variable is broadly comparable between censuses, with all years noting whether a person had ever attended school in the past.

The types of education considered as school attendance may vary across census samples. The 1989 and 1999 samples refer to general education or equivalent, excluding kindergarten and professional/technical schools. The 2009 census question refers to regular and irregular schools. In 2019, school attendance refers to any program in the national education system, excluding training and vocational programs.

Comparability — Zambia [top]

In the 1990 and 2000 censuses, vocational and teacher training are considered as schooling but not apprenticeships; the source variables for these samples distinguish between current and past part-time and full-time attendance. Correspondence courses are regarded as attending school.

In 1990 and 2000, the question was asked of all persons age 5 and older. In 2010, the question was asked of present household members and visitors age 5 and older. The 1990 and 2000 enumeration instructions indicate that this question should have been asked only of present household members and visitors, but school attendance is reported for almost all absent household members; they are included in the universe.