Comparability — Argentina [top]

Literacy indicates the ability to read and write in any language in all censuses. The 2010 census was more explicit in requiring the ability to read, write and understand a simple phrase.

Comparability — Armenia [top]

Only persons who did not complete elementary education were asked about literacy, defined as the ability to read and understand some language. All individuals who completed elementary education are included in the literate category.

Comparability — Bangladesh [top]

All censuses define literacy as the ability to write a letter.

Comparability — Belarus [top]

Literacy status was a category of educational attainment, and it is not clear how an illiterate person who had some schooling would have answered the question.

Comparability — Benin [top]

In all samples, literacy is the ability to read and write in any language, including local languages.

Comparability — Bolivia [top]

The universe differs across the three censuses in terms of age. The 1976 and 2012 samples required that the person be able to both read and write. The 1992 and 2001 samples specified the ability to read or write a basic document.

Comparability — Brazil [top]

All samples agree that, to be considered literate, a person must be able to read and write a simple note in any language. Persons are not literate if they can only write their name or if they once learned to read and write but have since forgotten.

Comparability — Burkina Faso [top]

The age universe for the question includes ever-younger people each census.

Literacy refers to the ability to read and write any language fluently.

Comparability — Cambodia [top]

In all samples, literacy indicates the ability to read and write a simple message in any language. The enumeration instructions for the 1998-2013 samples indicated that a person is considered illiterate if he or she is capable of reading only his/her own name or numbers. A literate person who can no longer read and write at the time of the census due to physical defects or illness is still considered literate.

The 2008 and 2019 data are constructed from separate responses for literacy in the Khmer language and literacy in some other language. Persons who cannot read or write Khmer or any other language are classified as illiterate. The details are preserved in the unharmonized source variables.

There are minor universe differences across samples.

Comparability — Cameroon [top]

Literacy refers to the ability to read and write in any language.

Comparability — Chile [top]

From 1970 to 1992, persons with a certain level of educational attainment were automatically considered literate. In the 1970 sample, anyone who completed more than primary education was considered literate. In the 1982 and 1992 samples, persons with 4 or more years of primary education were considered literate.

The 1970 instructions define literacy as the ability to read and write a simple paragraph. Other years simply state that the person should know how to read and write.

Comparability — China [top]

In 1982 and 1990, the enumeration instructions supplied explicit criteria for defining literate and semi-literate persons. The questionnaire provided response boxes for various levels of formal schooling and one for illiterate and semi-literate persons. The instructions stated that illiterate and semi-literate persons were those who know fewer than 1500 words and cannot read "simple language books and newspapers or write a simple message". A person with formal schooling who could not meet these criteria should have been recorded as "illiterate". Also, persons who could meet these literacy criteria were to respond that they had primary schooling, regardless of whether they actually attended school.

In 2000, the instructions indicate that city residents and employees of villages or township enterprises are considered as literate if they are capable of reading 2,000 Chinese characters, and rural residents are considered as literate if they can read 1,500 Chinese characters. Additionally, full-time primary students are considered to be literate.

Comparability — Colombia [top]

The 1964 enumerator instructions state that a literate person is one able to read and write a simple paragraph. In 1973, a literate person was one who could read, write, and comprehend text. In 1985, a literate person was one who could read and write a paragraph or a simple piece in his/her mother tongue, even though he or she did it slowly. In 1993 and 2005, a literate person was one who could read and write.

Comparability — Costa Rica [top]

The universe changes over time. The instructions for all samples state that literacy means the ability to read and write simple text or a paragraph. In the 2000 sample, persons with greater than primary education are automatically considered literate.

Comparability — Côte d'Ivoire [top]

Literacy is derived from the educational attainment question in the 1988 sample, where only literate persons provided information about schooling. In 1988, literacy is interpreted as the ability to read and write in any language.

The 1998 sample specifies that literacy refers to the ability to read, write, and understand a simple letter addressed to someone.

Comparability — Dominican Republic [top]

In 1960 a person is considered to be literate if he or she is able to read and write a simple paragraph in any language. Other censuses only define literacy as knowing both how to read and how to write, without further details. The universe for 1960 is all persons; in 1970 and 1981 it is persons age 5 or more; and in 2002 and 2010 it is persons age 3 or more.

Comparability — Ecuador [top]

The age universe for the question changes slightly between samples. No sample gave a specific definition of literacy beyond the ability to read and write.

Comparability — Egypt [top]

The census did not define literacy in 1996. Literacy is derived from the educational attainment question in the 1986 and 2006 samples, and implies the ability to read and write.

In 1986, the universe includes persons age 6 or older. In the later samples, the universe includes persons age 10 or older.

Comparability — El Salvador [top]

Literacy refers to the ability to read and write at least a paragraph. Persons who only know how to write their name or a few numbers are considered illiterate.

Comparability — Ethiopia [top]

In 1984 and 1994, literacy is derived from the educational attainment source variables which included illiterate as response categories. Individuals who are in school but not yet literate are included in the illiterate category. The 2007 sample includes a separate literacy variable. In all samples, literacy is defined as the ability to read and write clearly in any language, not the ability to simply write one's name.

Comparability — Ghana [top]

This question relates to the respondent's ability to both read and write in any language. A respondent is considered literate if he or she could read and write a simple statement with understanding, not only write or distinguish letters of the alphabet or count numbers. Persons literate in the past, but not at the time of the interview, are considered illiterate. The source variables identify literacy in English, Ghanaian languages, and other languages. The universe for 2000 is persons age 15 or more, while in 2010 it is persons age 11 or more.

Comparability — Greece [top]

From 1971 to 1991, the universe statement includes persons aged 10 or older. In 2001, the universe statement includes persons aged 5 or older; and in 2011 it includes persons aged 6 or older.

For 1981 to 2011, literacy was a category of the educational attainment question. In the 1981 and 2001 samples, respondents who attended school could choose whether to report literacy or their highest level of schooling. In the 1991 sample, persons who did not complete primary school could report themselves as either literate or illiterate. All persons who completed primary schooling were considered literate.

Comparability — Guatemala [top]

The data are comparable across census years, indicating the ability to read and write in any language. The censuses from 1964 to 1994 indicate the ability to read and write a simple paragraph, but the 2002 census required only the ability to read and write without further specification.

Comparability — Guinea [top]

Literacy is defined in all samples as the ability to read and write in any language.

Comparability — Haiti [top]

Literacy is defined as the ability to read and write simple text, not simply to write one's name. The source variable for 1971 identifies semi-literate persons who could read but not write. There is a slight difference in the age universe between samples.

Comparability — Honduras [top]

In all samples, literacy is the ability to read and write. Only the 1961 instructions included the additional qualifier: "in any language."

Comparability — Indonesia [top]

Literacy refers to the ability to read and write a simple sentence using any character set. Disabled persons are recorded as "Literate" if, prior to the disability, they were literate. In many samples, the unharmonized source variables distinguish the type of characters of literacy (e.g. Latin, Arabic, other).

The universe changes significantly, from all persons up to the 1980 sample, to persons age 5 or older in subsequent samples.

Comparability — Iran [top]

In 2006, literacy indicates that a person can read and write a simple text in any language. The 2011 enumeration instructions indicate that an individual is considered as literate if he or she can read and write simple Farsi text. This definition was also applied to persons with disabilities (deaf, blind, or with speaking disorders), who were not automatically assumed to be illiterate.

Comparability — Iraq [top]

Persons without an educational certificate were asked whether they could read and write at least a paragraph in any language. Persons with an educational certificate were assumed to be literate. The sample recorded separate responses for reading only and reading and writing (see the unharmonized source variable). Only persons who could both read and write are coded as "literate".

Comparability — Italy [top]

Only persons who did not have a primary education certificate were asked about literacy, which was defined as the ability to read and write.

Comparability — Jordan [top]

The question was asked to persons age 15 or older who were not attending school. Literacy is defined as the ability to read and write, and was only recorded for people with less than an elementary education.

Comparability — Kenya [top]

The instructions state that a literate person is one who is able to read and write a simple statement.

In 1989, persons in group quarters (i.e., travelers and short questionnaire respondents) have a missing response for literacy.

Comparability — Kyrgyzstan [top]

Literacy is defined as the ability to read in 1999 and to read and write in 2009. In both years, the question was only asked of persons with less than a primary education. All persons who completed primary are coded literate.

Comparability — Laos [top]

The definition of literacy in 1995 and 2005 is non-standard: it includes only the ability to read (a newspaper or bill-board) and write a simple letter in official Lao, not any other languages. In 2015, the definition of literacy indicates that a person can read and write with understanding Lao or other languages.

Comparability — Lesotho [top]

The census question distinguishes between the ability to read with ease or with difficulty. That detail is preserved in the source variable.

Comparability — Liberia [top]

The variable differs significantly between samples. In both years a literate person is one who can read and write. But in 1974 the question refers to reading and writing in English only, while 2008 applies to ability in any language.

Comparability — Malawi [top]

Literacy refers to the ability to read and write a simple statement in Chichewa or English in 1987. In other samples, it refers to literacy in any language.

The universe statement for the 1987 and 1998 samples includes persons age 5 or older. In the 2008 and 2018 samples, the universe includes persons age 3 or older and excludes visitors.

Comparability — Malaysia [top]

In the 1970 and 1980 samples, respondents were considered literate if they could both read a newspaper or letter and write a simple letter. Only persons who could do both were coded as "literate" in 1970 and 2000. The source variable for 1980 identifies semi-literate persons who could read but not write. The 2000 sample asked if the respondent could read and write in any language.

Comparability — Mali [top]

The universe includes persons age 6 or older the 1987 sample, and persons age 12 or older in the 1998 and 2009 samples. Literacy is defined as the ability to read, write, and understand a brief written text in any language.

Comparability — Mauritius [top]

Literacy is the ability to read and write in any language. The 1990-2011 samples ask about any language in which the person can, with understanding, both read and write a simple statement of their everyday life. The definition excludes persons who can only read and write their name, figures, or memorized phrases.

Comparability — Mexico [top]

The 1970 enumeration form had separate questions for ability to read and ability to write. All combinations of responses -- except "Reads and writes" -- were coded as "Illiterate".

The 1990-2020 samples asked if the person was able to read and write a short message.

Comparability — Mongolia [top]

Literacy is the ability to read and write in any language. Literacy is defined as the ability to both read and write, with understanding, a simple statement in his/her every day life. It does not include a language in which a person can read and write only his/her name, figures and memorized phrases.

Comparability — Morocco [top]

Literacy refers to the ability to read and write a simple paragraph. The unharmonized source variables preserve the language(s) -- Arabic, French, and/or other -- in which a person is literate.

Comparability — Mozambique [top]

Literacy is defined as the ability to read and write simple text in any language. The unharmonized source variables distinguish individuals who can read and write from those who can only read.

Comparability — Myanmar [top]

Literacy is the ability to both read and write in any language with understanding. Writing or reading only a person's name is not sufficient to be regarded as literate.

Comparability — Nepal [top]

Literacy is defined as the ability to read, write, and count in any language. The source variables identify semi-literate persons who could read but not write.

The minimum age universe for the question changes slightly between census years.

Comparability — Nicaragua [top]

Literacy refers to the ability to read and write a message or paragraph. The 1995 and 2005 source variables identify semi-literate persons who could read but not write. The universe statement changes. For the 1995 and 2005 samples, it includes persons age 5 or older. These later samples also distinguish between reading ability only and reading and writing ability. These details are preserved in the unharmonized source variables.

Comparability — Pakistan [top]

The universe statement for age is consistent across samples. Literacy is defined as the ability to both read and write in any language, even if the person has not attended to school to acquire such skills.

In 1981 and 1998, the question asks explicitly whether the person can read a newspaper and can write a simple letter.

Comparability — Palestine [top]

Literacy was asked as part of a larger educational level question in all samples. It implies the ability to both read and write.

Comparability — Panama [top]

In all samples, a person must know how to both read and write to be considered literate. In 1970-1980, any person who passed third grade of the primary education system was considered literate. In 1990-2000, any person who passed the fourth grade of the primary education system was considered literate. Those with fewer than four years had to be able to read and write a simple passage. In 2010, literacy was defined as the ability to read and write a message; there was no consideration of level of schooling.

Comparability — Papua New Guinea [top]

In all samples, literacy is the ability to read and write in any language, including local languages.

Comparability — Paraguay [top]

This variable is only available for the 1962, 1972, and 1982 samples. Literacy is defined as the ability to read and write correctly in any language.

Comparability — Philippines [top]

In all years, literacy is defined as the ability to read and write a simple message in any language.

Comparability — Portugal [top]

In all samples, literacy indicates the ability to read and write.

Comparability — Puerto Rico [top]

The universe statement includes persons age 10 or older in the 1970 sample, and persons age 5 or older in the following samples. Literacy is defined as the ability to read and write in any language.

Comparability — Romania [top]

Literacy indicates the ability to read and write. The source variables identify persons who could read but not write.

Comparability — Russia [top]

Literacy is the ability to read and write. Only persons with less than primary education were asked about their literacy status in either census.

Comparability — Rwanda [top]

The samples define literacy as the ability to read and write. The 2012 census further specifies that literacy applies to any language, including local languages. The source variables identify persons who could read but not write.

Comparability — Senegal [top]

The universes are comparable between samples. Literacy is defined as the ability to read and write in any language.

Comparability — Sierra Leone [top]

Literacy refers to the ability to read and write in any language, irrespective of attendance at a formal education institution.

Comparability — South Sudan [top]

Literacy refers to the ability to read and write a simple sentence in any language.

Comparability — Spain [top]

The 1991 sample has a universe statement of age 10 or older; the 1981 and 2001 samples have no age restriction.

The 1981 sample asked a separate question on the ability to both read and write. For the 1991 and 2001 samples, literacy was a category of educational attainment. Apparently, the illiteracy status was restricted to persons who did not complete primary school.

Comparability — Sudan [top]

Literacy refers to the ability to read and write a simple sentence in any language.

Comparability — Tanzania [top]

In 1988, the question asks only whether people can read and write in Kiswahili. In later samples, the question asks whether the person can both read and write in any language.

The universe statement includes persons age 5 or older in 1988 and 2002, while it includes persons age 4 years or older in 2012.

Comparability — Thailand [top]

The universe statement is comparable between samples. Literacy is defined as the ability to read and write in any language.

Comparability — Togo [top]

Literacy is the ability to read and write in all years. The 2010 census had further language about the ability to read, write and understand a simple text.

The 1960 and 2010 source variables have more information on semi-literacy, with 2010 also indicating additional language detail.

The census question was directed to all persons in 1960 and 1970, but only to persons age 6 and older in 2010.

Comparability — Turkey [top]

Literacy refers to the ability to read and write a message or paragraph in Turkish or any foreign alphabet. Persons who are literate in the "old Turkish alphabet" only are considered illiterate.

Comparability — Uganda [top]

Literacy indicates the ability to read and write. The specific instructions differed somewhat across censuses, but they overall identify the ability both to read with understanding and write with meaning. The 2014 sample also indicates if persons were able to read or write only, information that is preserved in the corresponding unharmonized source variable.

Comparability — Ukraine [top]

Literacy is derived from a question aimed at educational attainment. Persons with primary general or further education are implicitly considered literate.

Comparability — Uruguay [top]

In all samples literacy is defined as the ability to read and write. The instructions for 1975-1996 refer to any language, while in 2006 and 2011 they require being able to read and write at least a complete paragraph. In 2011 those who completed four years or more of primary education are assumed to be literate.

The universe statement changes across samples: persons age 6 or older in the 1963-1985 samples, persons age 3 or older in 1996, all persons in 2006, and persons age 10 or older in 2011.

Comparability — Venezuela [top]

The universe statement changes: from age 5 or older to age 3 or older in the 1990 sample.

The 1971, 1981, and 2001 samples indicated that literacy means the ability to read and write a simple paragraph. The 1990 sample gave no further instructions beyond the ability to read and write.

Comparability — Vietnam [top]

A literate person is one who can read, write, and understand a simple sentence in any language. In addition, in 1999, persons with 5 or more years of schooling are considered literate. Persons who can only read and write numbers and their names, or who learned a sentence by heart, are coded as "Illiterate". In 2009, persons with more than primary education level are automatically considered literate while in 2019, persons with primary education level and above are considered literate.

Comparability — Zambia [top]

In all samples, literacy is the ability to read and write in any language, including local languages.

In 1990 and 2000, the question was asked of all persons age 5 and older. In 2010, the question was asked of present household members and visitors age 5 and older. The 1990 and 2000 enumeration instructions indicate that this question should have been asked only of present household members and visitors, but literacy is reported for almost all absent household members; they are included in the universe.